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articles on history
The third caliph, who completed the canonization of the Qurʾanic text, but whose rule provoked widespread dissatisfaction and ended with his assassination
The second caliph, under whom the Caliphate expanded rapidly and the foundations of Islamic governance and law were established
The first Rightly Guided Caliph, the closest companion of the Prophet Muhammad, who preserved the unity of the Muslim community after the Prophet’s death
n article on the Ostrogothic king who built a powerful kingdom in Italy
An article on the Norman commander who conquered southern Italy and Sicily and founded his own kingdom there
An article on how Arab forces defeated the Visigoths and established Umayyad rule in Iberia
An article on the battle between the Byzantines and the Seljuks that led to Seljuk control over most of Asia Minor
An article on the heroic defense by Greeks led by Spartans against the army of Xerxes
