The story of Kayqubad began in 1190 in the family of Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I. From early childhood, the prince found himself in the whirlpool of civil strife. His father twice occupied the throne in Konya, but in 1196–1197 he was overthrown by his own brother, Suleiman-Shah II. At that moment, Kaykhusraw fled the capital for Uluborlu in such haste that he left his young sons, Kaykaus and Kayqubad, to their fate. Later, their uncle nevertheless sent his nephews to their father, and they met on the border of Cilician Armenia, beginning long years of wandering through Eastern Anatolia, which eventually led them to Byzantium.
In 1204, after the death of Suleiman-Shah, his young son Kilij Arslan III found himself on the throne, which caused dissatisfaction among the emirs. Kaykhusraw was invited to return. However, the road to the throne lay through the Empire of Nicaea, where Emperor Theodore I Laskaris decided to profit from the situation. He demanded territorial concessions in exchange for the passage of troops, while Kaykaus and Kayqubad were left in Nicaea as hostages under the supervision of the loyal hajib Zekeriya as a guarantee that the terms would be fulfilled.
The captivity did not last long. In January 1205, when Kaykhusraw had already reached his own lands, the hajib Zekeriya organized a daring escape. After bribing the guards and obtaining permission to hunt in the mountains, the princes supposedly became carried away in pursuit of game and swiftly crossed the border into Seljuk territory. This liberation freed the sultan’s hands, allowing him not to fulfill the onerous terms of the treaty with the Byzantines. Kayqubad was appointed to govern Tokat, although his father did not yet grant him full real authority.
In 1211, Kaykhusraw I fell in the Battle of Alaşehir. The throne was taken by Kayqubad’s elder brother, Kaykaus. Kayqubad, unwilling to accept a secondary role, raised a rebellion, concluding an alliance with the Cilician king Leo II and the malik of Erzurum. However, the siege of Kayseri brought no success. Kayqubad retreated to Ankara, where, after a long siege and the exhaustion of food supplies, he was forced to surrender in 1212. Kaykaus was determined to execute his rebellious brother, and only the intervention of the atabeg Majd ad-Din Ishaq saved the life of the future great sultan. Kayqubad was sent to prison, where he spent long years until his brother’s death in 1220 opened the path to freedom. The emirs, remembering the prince’s talents, proclaimed him sultan.
Having become ruler, Kayqubad I showed himself to be a far-sighted strategist. While the Mongol wave was rising in the east, he methodically strengthened the defenses of his state. The walls and towers of Konya, Kayseri, and Sivas were rebuilt and reinforced. But the main jewel of his constructive activity lay in the south. In 1221, the sultan recaptured the fortress of Kalonoros from the Cilician Armenians. He renamed it Alaiye — modern Alanya — in honor of his own name, Ala ad-Din, and turned it into his winter capital.
It was there that the famous Kızıl Kule, the Red Tower, was built and completed by 1224. This powerful octagonal structure not only protected the shipyard but also served as a symbol of Seljuk naval power. The unique military dockyard, hidden in five vaulted galleries, made it possible to build a fleet in secret and shelter ships from enemy eyes. Under Kayqubad, Anatolia became a prosperous land: sugar production was established in Alaiye, Sivas became a key hub of Levantine trade, and agriculture reached an industrial scale.
The sultan was a master of diplomacy. He confirmed and expanded the trade treaty with the Republic of Venice that his father and brother had previously signed. The new terms were unprecedented: a two-percent customs duty on goods, exemption from taxes on grain and precious metals, and guarantees of security for merchants in the event of pirate attacks. This made the sultanate the economic heart of the region.
Kayqubad’s military power extended far beyond Anatolia. Between 1220 and 1239, his emir Husam ad-Din Choban carried out a legendary naval expedition from Sinop to Crimea. The official pretext was the protection of the rights of merchants from Rum, and the result was the defeat of the Cuman army and the establishment of Seljuk influence in the northern Black Sea region.
In the east, the sultan also constantly had to prove his right to leadership. In 1226, the Artuqid vassal Masud attempted to declare independence by recognizing the supremacy of the Egyptian sultan. Kayqubad’s response was swift: in the Battle of Amid, he defeated the combined forces of the Artuqids and Ayyubids, bringing the rebel back into submission. In the following years, he successfully restrained the ambitions of the Khwarazmshah Jalal ad-Din Mangburni and repelled the first alarming Mongol raids.
The decline of the great reign came suddenly. In early 1237, Kayqubad carried out a grand mobilization of the army in the Kayseri region. It was an act of strength displayed before the envoys of Baghdad, the Mongol khan, and neighboring states. At the military parade, the sultan declared his younger son Kilij Arslan heir, which provoked dissatisfaction among court factions.
On 1 June 1237, a solemn reception was held in Kayseri. At the height of the celebration, the chashnigir, or cupbearer, Nasur ad-Din Ali, served the sultan roast chicken. As soon as the great ruler tasted the dish, he felt a sharp pain and died a few hours later. Official history remains silent, but the shadow of suspicion falls on Emir Saad ad-Din Köpek — an intriguer who wanted to see the sultan’s elder son, Kaykhusraw II, on the throne. The latter occupied the throne even before his father’s body had been committed to the earth.
Ala ad-Din Kayqubad I remained in the memory of posterity as “the Great.” He was not merely a warrior; he was an intellectual, a connoisseur of theology, chemistry, and history, a passionate chess player, and a patron of the arts. His reign became the moment of dazzling brilliance for Seljuk civilization, whose monuments — from the walls of Alanya to the caravanserais of Anatolia — still testify to the greatness of a man whose path ended so suddenly and tragically.
