ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, whose full name was Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, was born on March 17, 599, in Mecca. His birth is surrounded by an aura of uniqueness: many historians, both Shiʿi and Sunni (including al-Masʿūdī and Ibn Ṭalḥa), agree that ʿAlī was the only person in history to have been born directly inside the sacred Kaʿba. His father, Abū Ṭālib, was the head of the powerful Banū Hāshim clan and the paternal uncle of the Prophet Muhammad.
The destinies of ʿAlī and Muhammad became intertwined in early childhood. When Abū Ṭālib faced financial difficulties, Muhammad already married to Khadīja and financially secure took the young ʿAlī into his care. Thus, ʿAlī grew up under the direct guidance of the future Prophet, absorbing his moral values. At the age of ten, he became the first child and the first male to accept Islam. His devotion was absolute: on the night of the Hijra, when conspirators surrounded Muhammad’s house, it was ʿAlī who, risking his life, lay in the Prophet’s bed so that he could secretly depart for Medina.
In Medina, ʿAlī distinguished himself as an unparalleled warrior. In 624, at the Battle of Badr, he served as the standard-bearer and opened the battle with a victorious duel, slaying Walīd ibn al-Mughīra. For the extraordinary heroism he later displayed at the Battle of the Trench, he received the epithet Asadullāh (“Lion of God”). His constant companion was the legendary sword Dhū al-Fiqār, gifted to him by the Prophet or acquired after the battles.
In March 625, at Mount Uḥud, ʿAlī was again at the forefront. After defeating Ṭalḥa ibn Abī Ṭalḥa in the opening duel, he gave the signal for the Muslim attack. In that most arduous battle—the only major defeat suffered by the community — ʿAlī sustained sixteen wounds but did not abandon the Prophet. His valor was celebrated in the campaigns of Khaybar, Ḥunayn, and other fortresses, where his name inspired fear in enemies and hope in companions.
After the Prophet’s final pilgrimage, at the place called Ghadīr Khumm, the famous words were pronounced that ʿAlī was the mawlā (protector/beloved) of all believers. These words became a point of contention: Shiʿa interpreted them as a direct designation of a successor, while Sunnis viewed them as a sign of the Prophet’s profound personal esteem for ʿAlī. When Muhammad died in 632, ʿAlī — occupied with preparing the burial did not participate in the gathering at the Saqīfa of Banū Sāʿida, where Abū Bakr was chosen as caliph.
During the reigns of Abū Bakr, ʿUmar, and ʿUthmān, ʿAlī adopted the role of a wise adviser, withdrawing from active politics and devoting himself to the study of the Qur’an. After ʿUmar’s death, he became a member of the “Council of Six.” However, when ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf offered him authority on the condition that he follow not only the Qur’an and the Sunnah but also the precedents of the first two caliphs, ʿAlī honestly replied that he would follow them only to the extent of his ability. ʿUthmān agreed without reservation and thus became caliph. ʿAlī accepted this decision, although his supporters such as ʿAmmār ibn Yāsir and al-Miqdād openly expressed dissatisfaction.
In 656, after the tragic assassination of ʿUthmān, the community turned to ʿAlī. He was elected caliph at a moment of profound division. His reign began with attempts to restore justice and remove corrupt governors, but this met with fierce resistance. The governor of Syria, Muʿāwiya, refused to pledge allegiance, displaying in Damascus the bloodstained shirt of ʿUthmān as a symbol calling for vengeance.
The first major confrontation occurred in August 656 and entered history as the Battle of the Camel. Opposing ʿAlī were Ṭalḥa, al-Zubayr, and the Prophet’s wife ʿĀʾisha. The battle near Basra ended in ʿAlī’s victory, but it became a bitter lesson for the first time, Muslims shed one another’s blood on such a large scale.
The climax of the conflict was the Battle of Ṣiffīn in July 657. ʿAlī’s army of 50,000 met Muʿāwiya’s forces on the banks of the Euphrates. When victory for ʿAlī was close, ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ resorted to a ruse, ordering Muʿāwiya’s soldiers to raise copies of the Qur’an on their lances, calling for God’s judgment. ʿAlī, recognizing the deceit, was nevertheless compelled by part of his own army to halt the fighting. This decision led to the emergence of the Khārijite movement — radicals who left ʿAlī’s camp, accusing him of indecision.
The final years of ʿAlī’s life were spent fighting on two fronts: against the ambitions of Muʿāwiya and against the fanaticism of the Khārijites, whom he defeated at the Battle of Nahrawān. The Khārijites, thirsting for revenge, plotted to assassinate the three leading political figures of Islam—ʿAlī, Muʿāwiya, and ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ.
On the night of January 22, 661, in the Great Mosque of Kufa, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muljam struck ʿAlī with a poisoned dagger as he entered the mosque for the dawn prayer. Even as he lay bleeding, the caliph showed mercy, instructing his sons Ḥasan and Ḥusayn to deal justly with his killer: “A life for a life, if I die.” On January 23, 661, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib passed away. His grave in Najaf later became one of the greatest sanctuaries.
ʿAlī remained in history as Abū Turāb (“Father of Dust”) — a nickname given to him by the Prophet, which he bore with pride as a sign of his asceticism. He was a man of profound intellect, a master of law and fiqh, whose sermons and letters formed the foundation of Islamic wisdom.
